Glorious Victory or Unconditional Surrender?
Lessons for America 250 from the Civil War Sesquicentennial
From 2011 to 2015, the United States formally marked the 150th anniversary of the Civil War. Museums and historic sites throughout the country commemorated the sesquicentennial with special programs, new initiatives, and updated exhibits. For many organizations, the goal was to remember and reflect on the Civil War and its legacies while also bringing in new visitors. Staff and supporters at many sites invested significant amounts of time and money.
The conclusion of the Civil War Sesquicentennial was almost a decade ago. Today, museums and historic sites are looking towards another historical commemoration, the 250th anniversary of the creation of the United States, also known as the semiquincentennial. In addition to marking the 250th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence in 2026, many sites will also be commemorating the anniversaries of the battles, political decisions, and court cases that shaped the struggle for independence and the early years of the young nation. Many site administrators and leaders no doubt hope to use the 250th as a chance to engage new audiences and foster greater awareness of their institutions.
As historic sites prepare for the semiquincentennial, the sesquicentennial of the Civil War can serve as a useful reference point. Was that previous commemoration a success? Did Civil War sites meet their goals? Was any growth in visitation or engagement sustained? Given the time and financial costs of the Civil War sesquicentennial, the question of whether this made a difference is relevant from both an institutional perspective and (for publicly funded sites) a taxpayer perspective.
A Controversial Commemoration
The Civil War sesquicentennial hadn’t even finished before debates over its success or failure began. Historians, scholars, journalists, and pundits debated the issue on C-SPAN, in blog posts, and in journals. Noted Civil War historian Gary Gallagher took a negative view, describing the commemoration as “anemic.” By contrast, historian and park ranger Nick Sacco argued that the 150th had been a great success that brought new audiences to the Civil War battlefields and historic sites. The conversation over the sesquicentennial occurred amid larger debates over whether or not public interest in the Civil War and American history, in general, was declining.
The Civil War centennial in the 1960s emphasized patriotism, heroism on both sides, and sectional reconciliation, often to the exclusion of more complicated topics. For the 150th commemoration, the National Park Service, which stewards many Civil War sites, sought to emphasize the war’s causes and consequences. The agency also sought to connect the Civil War sesquicentennial with the 50th anniversary of the Civil Rights movement. The difference in goals and interpretive focus meant that many of the discussions about the sesquicentennial’s success or failure involved comparisons with the centennial. In one article, Nick Sacco compared the visitation numbers of the two commemorations. His findings suggested that the NPS’s recent efforts had been successful and that public interest in the parks was growing. The majority of park units that existed during both the centennial and the sesquicentennial experienced high average visitation during the years of the latter event.
Building on Sacco’s work, I compared a sample of 40 Civil War National Park Service sites and 41 non-Civil War historic sites from 2000 to 2019. All data came from the National Park Service’s online data page.1 I focused on NPS visitation since, as a large federal agency, they not only manage both Civil War and non-Civil War sites but also collect data on visitation that is accessible online. For this analysis, I included 2009 and 2010 within the sesquicentennial time frame since some sites, like Harpers Ferry National Historical Park, had commemorative programs to mark significant events connected to the lead-up to the Civil War.
While visitation is an imperfect metric of success (more on that later), it’s reasonable to think that many site managers did hope that the Civil War 150th would boost visitation and foster the next generation of park visitors. Many sites are concerned about negative substitution, and from conversations I’ve had working in the field, attracting and retaining new visitors and supporters is an important priority for many historic sites and museums. Looking at the visitation numbers provides one way to get a sense of how the public did or did not connect to these places during the sesquicentennial.
Ultimately, the visitation numbers present a complex picture. Visitation at many Civil War sites grew, supporting Sacco’s assertion that a dramatic decline in interest in the Civil War is overblown. However, while some park units did experience large visitation increases during the sesquicentennial, overall, NPS Civil War site visitation during this time period was not markedly different from non-Civil War sites.
Visitation at Civil War vs. non-Civil War sites
Looking at the numbers, the combined visitation of the NPS Civil War sites surveyed increased between 2009 and 2015 (shaded) and continued to increase in 2016 (the year of the NPS Centennial) before decreasing again.
While this might initially suggest that the NPS successfully utilized the sesquicentennial commemoration to bring in new visitors through effective marketing and engaging programs, comparing that data with combined visitation at non-Civil War NPS sites shows similar visitation trends in both groups. Visitation numbers rose in general during this time, casting doubt on how much the sesquicentennial motivated people to visit.
Looking at individual NPS Civil War sites, 23 out of 40 experienced three or more years of positive growth in visitation during the sesquicentennial. By contrast, 30 out of the 41 non-Civil War NPS sites reviewed experienced three or more years of positive growth in visitation during the same time period. Increases in attendance are good and show the attraction of the NPS. Still, from this data, there’s not much to suggest that the sesquicentennial specifically motivated new visitors to head to their local Civil War site.
Visitation spikes on battle anniversaries
Within the commemoration of the Civil War was the commemoration of specific battle anniversaries. Staff at many historic battlefields created special programming to mark the sesquicentennial of battles like Antietam, Manassas, Shiloh, and Cedar Creek. Did the battle anniversaries yield a noticeable jump in visitation? Looking at four major battlefields, Chickamauga, Appomattox, Gettysburg, and Fredericksburg, reveals that three out of the four had large visitation spikes during their 150th year, suggesting that many people were intrigued enough by these anniversaries to make a visit.
The same holds true for most other NPS Civil War battlefields. Of the sixteen reviewed, only four did not see their highest visitation numbers of the Civil War sesquicentennial occur during the year of the 150th anniversary of the battle associated with their site. As seen in the table below, most battlefields also experienced a large increase in visitation from the previous year to their battle anniversary year (highlighted).
Drawing strong conclusions from this data is difficult. Information does not exist about the marketing efforts employed by individual park units, so it is unclear what resources were devoted to promoting the 150th of a particular battle compared to marketing the 150th of the Civil War in general. Without detailed surveys, understanding the motivations of visitors is also a challenge. It might be that potential visitors saw the parks as places to mark the anniversary of a notable battle rather than as places to learn about the war in general.
It’s also worth noting that some parks are associated with multiple battles and significant events. While most people associate Fredericksburg & Spotsylvania National Military Park with the Battle of Fredericksburg (fought in 1862), the site also encompasses the Chancellorsville Battlefield (fought in 1863), the Wilderness Battlefield (fought in 1864), and the Spotsylvania Battlefield (fought 1864). While the 150th of the Battle of Fredericksburg in 2012 featured a noticeable jump in visitation, the same is not true for the 150th of the other battles fought within that park unit. In fact, visitation was lower in 2013 and 2014 than it was in 2009. Similarly, Harpers Ferry National Historical Park, while associated primarily with John Brown’s Raid, also encompasses and interprets the 1862 Battle of Harpers Ferry. During the sesquicentennial, visitation at Harpers Ferry was highest in 2009, the year of the 150th anniversary of the raid. 2012, the year of the 150th anniversary of the 1862 battle, had the fourth-highest visitation of that time period.
Data insights and their limitations
Historic sites associated with the Civil War are not in danger of becoming irrelevant. Of the NPS Civil War sites surveyed, most experienced increases in visitation during the commemoration of the Civil War. Although visitation decreased after the NPS centennial, most sites ended 2019 with higher visitation than in 2000.
However, the data presents a more complex picture in assessing whether or not the 150th was a success in spurring and maintaining visitation increases and visitor engagement. While many battlefields experienced large spikes in visitation during the 150th anniversary, overall visitation trends at Civil War sites did not differ meaningfully from those at non-Civil War historic sites.
As I alluded to earlier, visitation is not the be-all and end-all when it comes to measuring success. These numbers don’t capture people who visit when a site is not staffed, such as in the early morning or the evening. Even though these visitors are not interacting with staff, that doesn’t mean they’re not having a meaningful experience and developing an appreciation for the site and its history. Likewise, the COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the importance of digital engagement when connecting with visitors. A site that might not have many people walk through its doors might still be advancing its mission through its web and social media presence. Some sites grappling with over-visitation might not be looking to increase visitation at all and have other goals that they’re trying to work towards. Success comes down to whether a site meets its goals, and what those goals are will vary from site to site.
From 150 to 250
Based on this data, a couple of lessons emerge for sites connected with the American Revolution: 1) they should not rely on America 250 to drive visitation or sustain visitor engagement long-term, and 2) visitation will probably be higher than normal during the 250th anniversary of the main historical event connected with a site (i.e., the Princeton Battlefield should expect to welcome a good amount of people in 2027). That’s not to suggest that the best a historic site can hope for is a short visitation bump. Rather, it is a reminder that museums and historic sites need to be proactive and strategic if they want their semiquincentennial commemoration to be successful.
The National Park Service conducted an extensive retrospective of its work to commemorate and interpret the Civil War’s 150th anniversary, providing insights for other museums and historic sites. In the report, the NPS made several recommendations for how the agency can overcome challenges during future commemorations. Potential strategies include increasing its social media presence, strengthening partnerships, and improving communications with the media. All of these would help spread the word about NPS activities for the 250th anniversary of the American Revolution and are worthwhile for any site gearing up for America 250 to consider.
Ultimately, museums and historic sites need to determine what their goals for the 250th are. Do they want to increase visitation, or are there other benchmarks that they wish to work toward? How will these goals be communicated to major stakeholders? What metrics should be used to measure success? How does digital engagement factor in? Given the variety of sites connected to the struggle for American independence and the broader story of the 1700s, success will look different from site to site. Still, the time to plan out these goals and strategies is limited. With major anniversaries, like the Boston Tea Party, already past, site leaders and staff, if they haven’t already, must begin planning now. For any site looking for guidance on how to get started preparing for the 250th, the America250 organization and its many state and local chapters are a great resource. One valuable tool to help site staff and supporters focus their efforts and make strategic decisions is an interpretive plan. As an interpretive planner, I’m a little biased, but I’d recommend that any site preparing for the 250th complete some type of interpretive planning document before 2026.
A successful 250th is not going to materialize out of thin air. Sites need to actively work to ensure that their commemoration meets their internal goals and the needs of the public.
Bibliography
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Butler, Clayton. “An Interview with Historian Gary Gallagher.” The American Battlefield Trust, n.d. https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/interview-historian-gary-gallagher
Campi, Jim, “Sesquicentennial’s First Year Brings Civil War Trust Success on Many Fronts.” The American Battlefield Trust, January 3, 2012. https://www.battlefields.org/news/sesquicentennials-first-year-brings-civil-war-trust-success-many-fronts
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Sacco Nick, “A Statistical Analysis of Visitation to National Park Service Civil War Sites During the Sesquicentennial.” The Journal of the Civil War Era, January 9, 2018, https://www.journalofthecivilwarera.org/2018/01/statistical-analysis-visitation-national-park-service-civil-war-sites-sesquicentennial/
Shively, Carol. Civil War to Civil Rights Commemoration: Summary Report. The National Park Service, Department of the Interior, 2016. https://www.nps.gov/civilwar/upload/CIVIL-WAR-TO-CIVIL-RIGHTS-SUMMARY-REPORT-1-v2.pdf
Virginia Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War Commission. Civil War Sesquicentennial in Virginia: Impact at the halfway Mark. Report Document No. 417, 2012. https://rga.lis.virginia.gov/Published/2012/RD417/PDF
This article is adapted from an graduate school assignment.